Use Of Karyotype Analysis In Genetic Counseling Biology Essay

Use Of Karyotype Analysis In Genetic Counseling Biology Essay Complete set of metaphase chromosome is called karyotype. It is widely used to detect the chromosomal abnormalities that are related to the genetic diseases and various type of cancer. As the biomedical science advances, various kinds of techniques are used to analyze the human karyotype. These karyotype analysis are widely used in genetic counseling to minimize the risk of having unfortunate. By doing so, individual and families are realized to implement the genetic testing. In genetic counseling, knowledge of karyotype analysis is greatly determined the inheritable diseases including cancer. Moreover, Pedigree construction based on Mendelian principles is used in old days to know the pattern of inheritance. In recent year, FISH (fluorescence in situ hybridization), PCR (polymerase chain reaction), CGH (comparative genomic hybridization) and SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) arrays are developed for the promising future of human genetics. Among them FISH is the most currently diagnostic tool for the various chromosomal aberrations that can be visible in karyotype analysis. The most tested chromosomes are 13, 18, 21, 22, X and Y that account for 85% of chromosomal abnormalities (Rodrigo et al., 2010). But now, genetic scientists have been carried out the approaches towards all chromosome analysis. On the other hand, the high risk society is greatly interested to do pre pregnancy counseling to reduce the inheriting defective gene for the next generation . Therefore, use of karyotype analysis is more and more improved in genetic counseling for the screening and diagnosis as well as the treatment and prevention. Karyotyping Karyotype construction and analysis is the powerful diagnostic method to identify the chromosomal studies in human genetic. Karyotyping is usually done at the metaphase of cell cycle in which the chromosome structure is the most condensed. Therefore, it is also known as complete set of metaphase chromosome (Nie et al., 1998). There are 46 chromosomes in human (22 autosomes and sex chromosomes). Karyotype show the number of chromosomes, the sex chromosome content, the presence or absence of individual chromosomes and the nature and extent of any structural abnormalities. Karyotyping can be accessed under a microscope to examine the number and structural variants which must be size of 3 Mb or more. Only DNA sequencing can be observed smaller alterations (Klein and Tibboel, 2010). Chromosomes in human karyotype are categorized into seven depend on their bands after staining procedure. Each group is arranged into A to G defined by size and centromere position. These banding patterns help to identify specific defect regions on the chromosome. Thus, the any defect in chromosome region can be described as an accurate address. For example; 1q2.4 defines as chromosome number 1, q arm, region 2 and the banding 4 (Trask, 2002). Method For karyotype construction, the specimen can be taken from the white blood cell, skin cells, amniotic fluid cells and the chorionic villus cells. Then the cells are prepared to enter the mitosis and arrested in the stage of metaphase. Moreover, these preparations are treated with trypsin and staining to get the banding pattern. After that, video camera attached microscope directly send the images to the computer to generate the karyotypes (Yang et al., 2000). Generally, it could be used to determine if chromosome of an adult have abnormality or defect that can be passed on to a child. The origin of complex chromosomal defect is identified by using standard G-band procedures, fluorescent staining and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH). FISH is a recent technology to detect the specific chromosome structure by using particular DNA probes. This method is more accurate and enables to see the micro-deletion and exact break point involved in each chromosome (Ligon et al., 2997). Doing the karyotype analysis is benefit in pregnant women at the age of 35 and having the history of previous child with defect. Because of the risk of chromosome abnormalities dramatically increased in advanced maternal age and if the mother is an X-linked carrier, the recurrent risk is 1 to 2%. Therefore, antenatal screening tests including karyotyping are carried out to a defined population who are at risk of having a specific condition. Different tests are done in different stages of pregnancy. Chorionic villus sampling is offered at 11-12 weeks of pregnancy, Amniocentesis is done at 16 weeks and fetal blood sampling is carried out at 18-22 weeks of pregnancy. Although these all procedures are having risk of miscarriage, they are suitable for the chromosomal and DNA analysis (Callen et al., 1988). Especially, for the detecting of trisomies in chromosome 13, 18, 21, X and Y which account for more than 85% of all fetal aneuploidies. As a benefit, if a couple with a known risk to offspring, they can choose options to avoid or plan further pregnancy. If the male partner is affected, the couple has option for artificial insemination of sperm from a donor. If the female is affected with a dominant condition or X-linked carrier, the couple has option for egg donation from another female. Moreover, the relatively new procedure is pre-implantation genetic diagnosis. Initially, this process requires in vitro fertilization. If the fertilization occurred, one cell is removed from the stage of blastocyst and then investigated for the chromosomal disorder. If there is no defect, it will be returned to the uterus (Fukuda et al., 2007). In the molecular genetics, DNA testing is divided into four main categories which are diagnostic testing, carrier detection, pre symptomatic testing for adult onset diseases and prenatal diagnosis. In the genetic counseling, karyotype analysis is widely used in carrier detection incase of balanced translocation carrier, autosomal dominant recessive, X-linked female carrier disorder in order to evaluate the risk of having an affected child. Furthermore, karyotyping can be used as a pre symptomatic or predictive test in some individual who are at risk of an adult onset disorder to determine whether or not they carry the mutated gene for these disorders. This test is value for autosomal dominant condition because of having a chance is 50% if one parent is affected. For example, familial adenomatous polyposis, colon cancer, Huntington disease (Bodmer et al., 1991). Chromosomal aberrations Abnormalities of the chromosomes, these are large enough to be visible under the light microscope are termed chromosomal aberrations. They are usually classified into numerical abnormalities and structural abnormalities. Numerical aberration is the disordered of chromosome due to error in separation of chromosome in cell division. Aneuploidy represents gain or loss of a specific whole chromosome due to failure of paired chromosome in meiosis. The one with extra copy of chromosome is called trisomy and the one with missing copy of that chromosome is called monosomy. These can be seen either autosome or sex chromosome. Autosomal trisomy will result in early miscarriage and monosomy of an autosomal chromosome is not compactable with life. Autosomal trisomy is associated with increased maternal age (Harper et al., 1995). Similarly, polyploidy represents a complete extra set of chromosomes due to fertilization by two sperms (dispermy) or failure in maturation divisions of either the eggs or the sperm. For examples, triploidy and tetraploidy depending on the number of extra sets of chromosomes. Triplody occurs in 2% of all conception but early spontaneous abortion is usual (Munne and Cohen, 1998). The most commonly seen autosomal aneuploidies are trisomy 21-Downs syndrome (47, XX, +21 or 47, XY, +21), trisomy 18-Edwards syndrome (47, XX, +18 or 47, XY, +18), trisomy 13-Pataus syndrome (47, XX, +13 OR 47, XY, +13). Sex chromosomal aneuploidies are Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY), XYY syndrome (47, XYY), Triple X syndrome (47, XXX) and Turner syndrome (45, X). Autosomal monosomy is mostly lethal and autosomal trisomy is relatively more common (Rodrigo et al., 2010). The commonest autosomal trisomies are Downs syndrome, Patau syndrome and Edwards syndrome. The kayotype of Downs syndrome is 47, +21, an extra copy of chromosome 21. It occurs in 1 in 900 live births and leading cause of childhood mental retardation and heart defect (Wald et al., 1997). Patau syndrome is usually found at the time of doing cytogenetic analysis in malformed children. It also revealed extra chromosome at chromosome number 13 (47, +13) (Rasmussen et al., 2003). Another trisomy is the Edwards syndrome (47, +18). It accounts for a frequency of 1 in 11,000 live births (Massiah et al., 2008). Aneuploidy of the sex chromosome Aneuploidy of the sex chromosomes is more common than the autosomal aneupolidy but have less impact. Unlike the autosome, monosomy for Y chromosome is always lethal whereas monosomy for the X chromosome is a viable condition. The commonest syndromes that have ever seen in clinical setting are Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, Triple X syndrome and XYY syndrome (Smith et al., 1960). Monosomy of X chromosome results in 45, X karyotype due to non-disjunction in either parent. It is estimated that 1% of all conception from which 95 to 99% of all 45, X embryos die before birth. They have significant defect in height, sexual development and fertility but there is no mental retardation (David et al., 1986). The karyotype of Klinefelter syndrome is 47, XXY. The extra X chromosome of maternal origin is 56% and paternal is 44%. It is usually arise from non-disjunction at either the first or second meiotic division (Lamb et al., 1996). For example, if the father produces XY sperm that is cross over with maternal X ovum to produce XXY. This is the single commonest cause of hypogonadism and infertility in male. Overall the birth incidence of 47, XXY is 1 in 1000 male with an increased risk at maternal age and azoospermatic infertile males (Steinberger et al., 1965). And the karyotype of super female syndrome is 47, XXX which also known as triple X syndrome. It is usually appears as clinically normal but 15- 25% are mildly mentally handicapped. About three quarter of the affected females is fertile of which one- half of their offspring would expect to have this syndrome (Michalak et al., 1983). Furthermore, another karyotype defect associated with personality disorder is 47, XYY syndrome. It is firstly noted in 1965 cytogenetic survey in male for violent and dangerous antisocial behavior and about 4.5% of the males in this survey were shown as XYY karyotype. The frequency of having this characteristic karyotype in general population is 1 in 1000 birth according to the sub sequent studies. The recurrence risk for the offspring would be 2XXY : 2XY : 1XX : 1XYY due to production of YY sperm at the second meiotic division or post-fertilization non-disjunction of the Y (Staessen et al., 2003). Structural aberration is the disordered in the structure and shape of the chromosome resulting from chromosomal breakage and error in rejoin mechanisms. Translocation is the transfer of chromosomal material between non-homologous chromosomes but there is no DNA loss. Three recognizable translocations are reciprocal, centric fusion (Robertsonian) and insertion. The one important thing in translocation is the balanced reciprocal translocation which occurs in two non-homologus chromosomes (Michael and Malcolm, 1997). In normal population, 1 in 500 are known balanced carrier and they are clinically healthy but they can give a problem when they reproduce. It is possible for the balanced translocation carrier to pass on the translocation in unbalanced form that can lead to miscarriage and physical or developmental problem (Munne et al., 2000). Deletion is the loss of a part of chromosome that can cause phenotypic effect because of the loss of gene. For a deletion to be seen in karyotype analysis, the amount of deletion must be large. It may also occur as a result of an unbalanced translocation (Barber, 2005). Although deletion of a small piece of chromosome is not a serious problem, deletion of entire chromosome is lethal. Therefore, only a few viable conditions are found in large deletion. These are the listed below; Adapted from Human Heredity Principles and Issues, seventh edition, 2006 Region of deletion Related disease 5p- Cri du chat syndrome 11q- Wilms tumour 13q- Retionblastoma 15q- (maternal uniparental disomy) Prader- Wills syndrome 15q- (paternal uniparental disomy) Angelman syndrome Cri du chat syndrome is caused by deletion in short arm of chromosome 5 and incidence is 1 in 100,000 births (Cerruti, 2001). A characteristic feature of the affected child is having a sound of cat like cry (Niebuhr, 1978). The phenotype is slightly different depend on their chromosome break point. There are two regions of break point in the short arm of chromosome 5 have been identified in this syndrome. Loss of chromosome segment in 5p15.3 results in abnormal larynx development and deletion in 5p15.2 is associated with mental retardation (Overhauser et al., 1994; Simmons et al., 1995). Prader-Willi syndrome and Angleman syndrome are caused by deletion in region 15q11-13 or by uniparental disomy (Ledbetter, 1981). If both copies of chromosome are inherited from the father, the child will have Angelman and from the mother, the child will have Prader-Willi syndrome (Horsthemke, 1996). The incidence of Prader-Willi is 1 in 10, 000 whereas Angelman is 1 in 20, 000 live birth (Clayton-Smith, 1993; Petersen et al., 1995). Characteristic feature of Prader Willi syndrome is sleepiness and Angelman is bouts of laughter (Zori et al., 1992). These cytogenetic microdeletions in the long arm of chromosome 15 can be visible by using either FISH (fluoresce in situ hybridization) or DNA analysis with probes from the deleted region (Nicholls, 1994). The others structural abnormalities include duplication, inversion and mosiacism and the rare structural variants are fragile site, heteromorphisims, isochromosome and ring chromosome. Cancer genetics Some of the cancer can be detected by karyotype analysis. The connection between chromosome rearrangement and cancer is evident in leukemia. The specific chromosome translocation between chromosome 9 and 22 is called the Philadelphia chromosome. That can be used as well defined diagnostic tool and prognostic factor. Moreover, this specific translocation is associated with other forms of cancer including Burkitts lymphoma and multiple myeloma. Chromosome translocation associated with haematological cancers Translocation site Type of cancer t(9;22) Chronic myeloid leukemia (Rajasekariah et al., 1982) t(8;14), t(8;22), t(2;8) Burkitts lymphoma (Margrath, 1990) t(8;21) acute myeloblastic leukemia (Oshimura et al., 1976) t(4;18) follicular lymphoma (Fleischman and Prigogina, 1977) t(4;18) acute lymphocytic leukemia (Oshimura et al., 1977) The proportion of leukemia with a heritable component has been estimated as 25% in monozygotic twin. Risk to sibs in childhood leukemia is 2- 4 times higher than the population incidence. The risk of a relative developing Hodgkins disease is seven fold higher than other (Kelly, 1992). Genetic counseling Genetic counseling should be offered to both parents and must give adequate time under appropriate setting. Depth of explanation should be matched to education background of the couples, outlining of clinical features, complication, natural history, prognosis and effective management (Frets et al., 1991). Simple Explanation of the genetic basic of the condition with the aids of diagram and recurrent risk calculation should be carried out (Sermon, 2002). Furthermore, genetic counselor can give the suggestion to reduce the risk of having disorder. The options are no further pregnancy, adoption, in vitro fertilization with pre implantation diagnosis, artificial insemination-AID by donor (egg donation), termination pregnancy, OR ignore and accept the risk (Zare et al., 1973). AID is performed for husband with AD trait or both are carrier for a serious AR (Taranissi, 2005). The important thing in genetic counseling must be non- judgemental and non-directive. The aim is to deliver a balanced version of the facts which will permit the consultants to reach their own decision with regard to their reproductive future. In UK, congenital disabilities act of 1976 legal action can be brought against a person whose breach of duty to parents results in a child being born disabled, abnormal or unhealthy. Prenatal diagnosis with selective termination of pregnancy became a reality in UK with the abortion ACT OF 1967 (Macintyre, 1973). AD trait is the risk to each child of an affected person is 1 in 2. Disorder has high penetrance, most dominant trait shows variable expression. AR trait for the carrier parents, the risk recurrence risk is 1 in 4 diseases, 2 in 3 chance of being carrier (Yoshikawa and Mukai, 1970). In X-linked recessive trait, if females are obligate carrier, one half of her sons will be affected and one half of her daughter will be carrier. If affected male reproduce, there will be normal sons and carrier daughters. Nowadays, biochemical tests may be available for carrier detection, but because of X inactivation few of these are absolute and this information needs to be combined with the pedigree risk using Bayes theorem (Markova et al., 1984). Conditions need for genetic counseling and investigation (Watson et al., 1992) 1. Infertility one in ten of all couples are involuntarily infertile, such a couple need chromosomal analysis to exclude a balanced structural rearrangement and Klinefelter syndrome. 2. Recurrence miscarriage one of six pregnancy ends as a spontaneous miscarriage. 3-5% of cases have a balanced structural rearrangement 3. Still birth 4. Perinatal death with multiple malformations Conclusion The benefit of karyotype analysis in high risk population provides the prevention and early management options to minimize the risk. As the genetic science development, researchers and clinician have more advanced diagnostic tool like multiplex PCR, SNP microarray, CGH (comparative genomic hybridization) to identify the far more complex chromosome abnormalities. Although karyotyping by FISH can detect both balanced and unbalanced translocation, uniparental disomy can only be detected by SNP arrays and high output sequencing. Despite the high cost, enormous benefit can be found for the society to evaluate the superior treatment protocols and genomic technologies for the future.

African Transformation from 1865-1920

The Progression of African Americans from 1865 to 1920 America has changed, as a whole, throughout this time period. There have been many different presidents, elections, wars and other world issues. These factors contribute to the drastic change in America and to the American people. African Americans have gone through many different changes other than those of the other races. With the end of the Civil War, African Americans went through a lot of change with the end of slavery.Throughout this essay I will explain the legislature, economic, philosophies, leaders, movement of people and other factors that contributed to the drastic change of the African American people between 1865 to 1920. In 1865 Reconstruction stared after the end of the civil war. Even though President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, Slavery did not officially end until congress passed the 13th Amendment, which outlawed slavery. Freedmen were no allowed to be citizens until 1868 when congress passed the 14th amendment.The 14th amendment also allowed blacks the right to equal protection under the law. The first Supreme Court Interpretation of the 14th amendment was in the Slaughterhouse Case. This case extended the 14th amendment to all citizens. Even with the end of slavery and the right to citizenship, African Americans still didn’t have an easy life. With the end of slavery African Americans faced the issue of not being able to vote or in some not being allowed to own land.The Black codes, which laws were passed by state legislatures to suppress blacks and put them is form of slavery that was legal at the time. To fix the problem of blacks not being able to vote, congress passed the 15th amendment, which made it legal for blacks to vote. Even with the right to vote blacks were suppressed by and scared out of voting be the Klu Klux Klan which used tactics such a lynchings to scare blacks of voting. Ida B. Wells was a black journalist who exposed lynchings in the U. S.L iteracy test and poll taxes were also tactics used by white surprimisist to get blacks not to vote. Even with black codes and the KKK, this time period of Reconstruction was still a successful time for freedmen. They had three amendments passed in that addressed a few of the problems they faced. The blacks had come a long way from the end of the Civil War; they had gotten a lot of rights. Although they got many rights now they were at a large disadvantage to the whites. Blacks could not go to school because they had work or even were not allowed to go.Because of this disadvantage blacks could not get the same jobs as whites because they did not have the same education. There were two main leader of the movement to get blacks better education and jobs, but the two of them had completely different views of how to get what they wanted. The first was Booker T. Washington, who believed that blacks should not push for what they wanted and that they should prove their selves to get the sam e education and jobs as whites, this is also called gradualism. African Americans disliked this because they thought that their equalization was being put off.He believed that they should not rock the â€Å"Racial Boat†. The Second was W. E. B Dubois, who believed the exact opposite of Washington. He believed that the blacks could force the whites to give them what they wanted. He also believed that they should not what for the whites to give it to them he thought that blacks should push and force them to give it to them. Dubois also published the book of essays called The Souls of the Black Folks (1903). The blacks also ran out of labor in the South and choose to migrate to the North were there was an abundance of jobs.This sudden movement of blacks from the South to the North started the Great Black Migration. This era after reconstruction was a very successful time for freedmen and brought about great change not only in the lives of African Americans but also in the lives of all Americans. After slaves were free the US tried to start the Back to Africa Movement. This movement was brought about to try to get freedmen with African decent to go back to Africa and their homeland. For blacks that did not want to return to Africa there were very few options for them if they choose to stay.The first main problem was should they stay in the South or go somewhere else to find shelter and a job. The next problem was to find a job. To replace the slaves plantation owner implemented share cropping. Share cropping was a form of paid slavery that gave the families that choose to work on the plantation as share croppers a plot of land to farm and a place to live. The share croppers would give a large portion of what they had farmed to the owner of the land and they would get to keep a small amount of what they had harvested for themselves to live off of.For those who had joined the Union army during the Civil War, they had to try to get what they were promised whic h was forty acres of land and a mule to plow it. Though promise was rarely met this was an option for some freedmen who choose to stay in the U. S. To help freedmen get what they needed such a job, food, or education the Freedmen’s Bureau was started. This bureau was started to help get recently freed slaves on their feet after the Civil War. Former slaves had a hard time finding jobs but they did it anyway.During reconstruction the Southern Democrats wanted to get rid of the collation of Republicans that controlled the post war south. The Bourbon Democrats that want to oust this collation of freedmen, carpetbaggers, and scalawags were known as Redeemers. These Redeemers did not get their way until reconstruction ended in 1877. With the end of reconstruction man freedmen were scare by the rumor of the reinstitution of slavery and the fact that the leaders of the old south were back in control meant that discrimination would run rampant.With this in mind they fled to the north and west most settling in Kansas. These freedmen who fled were known as exodusters. The Democratic Party regained the political power of the South. This total political power of the Democratic Party was known as the Solid South. During the time period of the Solid South, blacks were greatly discriminated upon. Freedmen who held office during reconstruction were stripped of their political position. To suppress blacks, white surprimisist implemented Jim Crow laws.Jim Crow laws were a set of laws passed by state legislatures in witch in some cases pulled the African Americans Right to vote. The term Jim Crow comes from a show that was put on to show a stereotypical black. In this show whites would wear black and pain themselves and then act as they thought blacks were. They would act stupid and show the idea that blacks were not equal to whites. In most states a grandfather clause was put into the state constitution which stated that if your grandfather had voted before the civil war than you could vote even if you were illiterate.This clause was meant to keep blacks who could not pass the literacy test from voting and allowed for the whites who failed the literacy test a way to vote. Under the Jim Crow laws the thought of â€Å"Separate but Equal†. This basically meant that as long as the state gave blacks the same conditions as whites it was ok to segregate them. The first major time the idea of â€Å"Separate but Equal† was challenged was in the case of Plessey vs. Fergusion (1896). In this case Homer Plessey was accused of sitting in the whites’ only car of the East Louisiana Railroad y and refused to leave.Plessey was seven eighths white and one eighth black, an octoroon. Even though he was just on eighth African American he was still consider black by Louisiana law and thus required to sit in the colored car of the train. The courts stated that Louisiana could not regulate railroad that went between two or more states but that they co uld regulate railroads that were only within the state. Both the state and federal Supreme Courts ruled against Plessey. It was not until the ca of Brown vs. Board of Education (1954) the â€Å"Separate but Equal† would no longer be the law of the land.During this time of Separate but Equal the type of segregation that took place was de jure segregation which meant to be segregated by law. This differs from today in that even though the law does not permit segregation in still happens by custom which is de facto segregation. W. E. B. Dubois organized a group that meet on the Canadian side of Niagara Falls. Because they meet at Niagara Falls they came to be known as the Niagara Movement (1903). They meet to discuses to problems facing blacks on a political and social level. They also discussed ways to fix the problems that faced the blacks.This movement was made of only blacks. The Niagara Movement led to the creation of the NAACP, which was made up of both blacks and whites a nd also fought for the solutions to problems facing blacks and whites on a political and social level. The Niagara Movement was thought to be more radical than that of the NAACP. Booker T. Washington; the president of the Tuskegee Institute, the first all black collage; was the architect of the Atlanta Compromise which stated that blacks would work week in and week out and summit to white political rule in exchange for basic education and due process.W. E. B Dubois used the term the Talented Tenth to show the 1 out of 10 blacks who will rise to be a leader of his or her race. He argued that blacks needed a more classical education rather than a vocational or industrial education. Marcus Garvey was a Jamaican political leader that founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association, African Community League, and the Black Star Steamship Line. The Black Star Steamship Line was shipping line that was supposed to facilitate the transportation of goods and eventually African Americans th roughout the African global economy.The Black Star Steamship Line derived its name from the white star line which was a key factor to the success of the back to Africa movement. Garvey thought he could simulate the success of the White Star Line. The Universal Negro Improvement Association founded the newspaper Negro World which had a front page editorial from Garvey and poetry and articles of international interest of people of African Ancestor. These men and there association were civil rights leaders that shaped the African American world.

Globalization and Religion in Latin America Essay

Dr. Marian Cusimano Love’s argument on globalization is very clear and straight forward as she pointed out the other side of globalization, which according to her creates institutional crises â€Å"as existing states and regimes are having difficulties in coping with the challenges globalization brings† (p. 2). She contends that this difficulty creates and exacerbates institutional gap. The institutional gap according to the author is that while globalization is at fast pace, institutional responses is slow. The problems move faster than the solutions to it and this cannot be managed by any government alone even by the strongest state in the world. However the author’s emphasis falls on the institutional gap that exists between the rich and poor countries. Here, the author rightly pointed out the wide discrepancy of the rich and poor countries in the sharing of the benefits of globalization. The author argues that only the rich countries led by the United States enjoy the benefits of globalization as the world economy is ruled by Multinational Corporation, which only cares about profits while the states seek wealth and development. Thus, the author pointed out that whether globalization is driven by multinational companies or by powerful states,† many observers decry the ethical basis of globalization is driven by an ethic of crass materialism and consumption, or western cultural imperialism† (p. 4) As the ethical issue widens, the author emphasized that today more than half of the world’s population are not getting any benefits of globalization, and human development is unfulfilled, sacred creation is destroyed, and human life is lost. This emphasis clearly implies a strong course of action in favor of the poor people or poor states that cannot advance or protect their interest in the global economy. The author noted that this problem is looming and worsening as the world’s poorest population is growing which will further enhance the gap between the rich and the poor. The author’s discussion of the unequal sharing of the benefits of globalization calls for a unified response from rich countries on the growing ethical concerns between the rich and poor countries, because, after all poor people are also sacred creation. But as the author turned to religion to search for answer to the growing institutional and ethical crises brought about by globalization, it appears that this is not possible as the corporations and states are not only engines but are both engine and beneficiaries of globalization. In turning to religion, the author presented an entirely different view from that of the states or corporation. The author noted that corporations view people as a source of profit while the state sees people as a subject to be governed or taxpayers. Religion sees people not as an instrument or a servant or useful object, but a spiritual being created by God, therefore he must be independent. He has the right to share in the blessings, which is the product of economic development. The author argues, â€Å"Religious organization has long been playing an active role in globalization† (p. 5), and can be a mediating institution in the institutional and ethical gap between the rich and the poor. I believed that the author is right in saying that religious organization â€Å"may have some advantages in responding to these institutional gaps, to help manage the problem of globalization† (p. 6). Indeed, many religious international organizations are doing exactly these things. The author cited that there is already a course of action taken in coordination with the Roman Catholic bishops of Latin America and the Canadian Bishops Conference, which is a seminar on debt relief for heavily indebted poor countries. This is important course of action because it proves that religious institution can indeed fulfill the task of bridging the gap between the rich and the poor. The Latin American Catholic bishops were coordinated for the conference for the reason perhaps that many of the world’s poorer country is located in Latin America. It is where most of these ethical problems relating to benefit of globalization are generally experienced. In bridging the gap by the Catholic Church, the author pointed out that the US bishops and the United States Catholic Church â€Å"may not be well equipped to bridge the gaps created by global problems† (P. 8) as US Catholic bishops are not quick to make decisions, and â€Å"many developing countries believed that globalization benefits the US at their expense† (p 8). I think these reasons are valid, as it has been mentioned in this paper that the US along with other rich countries and multinational corporations are the ones who get most of the globalization benefits. But Catholic Church is a global institution with highly organized yet centralized leadership, which would be ideal in mediating or bridging the gap created by the problem of globalization. The Latin American Catholic Church can perfectly facilitates this bridging as the economy of most Latin American nation belongs to the third world economies. They maybe fully know the whole agenda of bridging the gaps between the poor and the rich economies of the world. The author noted that the Catholic Church has over 2000 years’ experience as a global institution, which made the Catholic Church deserving of the task. Furthermore the author pointed out that â€Å"globalization brings institutional gaps, but the Catholic Church has rich, extensive networks and institutions, from schools and hospitals to parishes and social development agencies, which are not only service oriented but in it for the long haul† (p.8). Religion bridges the institutional gap of rich and poor by presenting alternative visions of globalization, which is seeing people not as market, nor instrument but people of God that participate in the benefits of globalization. Work Cited Love, Maryann Cusimano. Bridging the Gap: Globalization and Religion, and the Institutions of the U. S. Catholic Church. USA: American Academy of Religions Conference, November 20, 2001.

Mccandless Obsession Problem, And Into The Wild By Chris...

People are better off living in civilization rather than the wild, and thus, people do not want to live in the wild: a statement which is not necessarily true. It may seem preferable to live in society with all the luxuries it provides: easy access to food, shelter, and technology. Even with these luxuries, many people want to live in the wild nevertheless. One of these people is Chris McCandless. He broke free from society and ventured into the wild. McCandless’s story is widely known today because it has a certain allure to it. Into the Wild, The Chris McCandless Obsession Problem, and Where I Lived, and What I Lived For lead to the idea that people are drawn to the McCandless story because they relate to or envy the feelings of escape,†¦show more content†¦Hence, the people who are so drawn to McCandless’s story; he got something that they all crave. McCandless had independence and a purpose to live for; people who read his story crave it. In addition to independence and purpose, much of the writing shows the want for escapism to be a reason that people are drawn to the McCandless story. In the wild, people are at liberty to live simply and candidly. Walden writes that in the woods, people live deliberately with purpose, while in society people live â€Å"meanly, like ants†, and their lives are â€Å"frittered away by detail.† Getting the escape from the superfluous tasks in society to live simply is craved by many. Storsley is one of the many who went on the same journey McCandless went on to get to the bus McCandless lived out of. He desires to go out into the wild, and get away from society (Saverin). However, Storsley only takes respites from civilization because he clings to society; nevertheless, he still wants the escape that McCandless got. In Into the Wild, Roman â€Å"identifies† with McCandless’s needs to get away from society (185). McCandless’s feelings were completely na tural and are felt by most adolescents. People understand the longing to escape the torturous routine of society. Many pieces of the writing point to the readers relating with McCandless. Roman said that he â€Å"can’t help by identify with the guy [McCandless]† (Krakauer 185). He admits that he sees a part of himself in McCandless. Human typicallyShow MoreRelated Into the Wild by Jon Krakauer Essay840 Words   |  4 PagesInto the Wild by Jon Krakauer Chris McCandless was just a victim of his own obsession. The novel Into The Wild written by John Krakauer revealed the life of a young bright man named Chris McCandless who turned up dead in Alaska in summer 1992. In the novel, John Krakauer approached carefully McCandlesss life without putting too much authorial judgment to the readers. 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